The global market for Printed Circuit Board was valued at US$ 78290 million in the year 2024 and is projected to reach a revised size of US$ 101270 million by 2031, growing at a CAGR of 3.8% during the forecast period.
The 2025 U.S. tariff policies introduce profound uncertainty into the global economic landscape. This report critically examines the implications of recent tariff adjustments and international strategic countermeasures on Printed Circuit Board competitive dynamics, regional economic interdependencies, and supply chain reconfigurations.
This report studies the Printed Circuit Board market status and outlook of global and major regions, from angles of manufacturers, regions, product types and end industries; this report analyzes the top manufacturers in global and major regions, and splits the Printed Circuit Board market by product type and applications/end industries.
Market growth engine
China's dominant position: The market size of China is expected to reach 433.321 billion yuan in 2025 (accounting for over 50% of the global market), with AI and new energy vehicles as the core driving forces.
Sparks in specific fields
AI computing power demand: The value of PCB per server is 5,000 yuan, and the global market size will exceed 12 billion US dollars in 2025;
Automotive electronics: The demand for automotive PCBs will increase from 12% in 2020 to 20% in 2025 (exceeding 30 billion US dollars);
High-frequency communication: 5G/6G base stations drive the growth rate of high-frequency and high-speed PCBs by 25%.
Reconfiguration of regional competition landscape
Deepening of the Chinese cluster: The Pearl River Delta (with 40% of the national production capacity in Guangdong), the Yangtze River Delta, and the Bohai Rim have formed a high-end manufacturing belt; Leading enterprises (such as Pengding Holdings) will have a revenue share of AI-related business exceeding 70%, and they will enter the fields of optical modules/automotive radars.
Emerging capacity transfer: Southeast Asia takes on low-end capacity, and the annual sales growth rate of mid-range PCBs is 15%; The transfer of production capacity in the domestic central and western regions (such as Aosik Yiyang Factory) is accelerating, with a regional output growth rate of 20%.
Industry challenges and response strategies
Supply chain risks: Fluctuations in copper prices cause rising raw material costs and extended inventory cycles for manufacturers.
Breakthrough in technical barriers
High-end substitution: The import dependence of packaging substrates/high-frequency materials still exceeds 60%, and the R&D investment of leading enterprises accounts for 8%-10% of their revenue;
Vertical integration: Companies like BYD have laid out the entire chain from copper foil to copper-clad laminate to PCB, reducing costs by 12%.
By 2030, the PCB market will present a "dual-track parallel" development:
High-end track: HDI/high-frequency substrates dominate (CAGR > 7%);
Scale track: Flexible boards/automotive PCBs support emerging demand (Southeast Asia growth rate of 15%);
Policy (environmental protection RoHS/carbon neutrality) and technological innovation (AI + 6G) are the long-term growth engines.
Report Scope
This report aims to provide a comprehensive presentation of the global market for Printed Circuit Board, with both quantitative and qualitative analysis, to help readers develop business/growth strategies, assess the market competitive situation, analyze their position in the current marketplace, and make informed business decisions regarding Printed Circuit Board.
The Printed Circuit Board market size, estimations, and forecasts are provided in terms of output/shipments (K Sq.m) and revenue ($ millions), considering 2024 as the base year, with history and forecast data for the period from 2020 to 2031. This report segments the global Printed Circuit Board market comprehensively. Regional market sizes, concerning products by Type, by Application, and by players, are also provided.
For a more in-depth understanding of the market, the report provides profiles of the competitive landscape, key competitors, and their respective market ranks. The report also discusses technological trends and new product developments.
The report will help the Printed Circuit Board manufacturers, new entrants, and industry chain related companies in this market with information on the revenues, production, and average price for the overall market and the sub-segments across the different segments, by company, by Type, by Application, and by regions.
By Company
Nippon Mektron
Unimicron
SEMCO
Young Poong Group
Ibiden
ZDT
Tripod
TTM
SEI
Daeduck Group
HannStar Board (GBM)
Viasystems(TTM)
Nanya PCB
CMK Corporation
Shinko Electric Ind
Compeq
AT&S
Kingboard
Ellington
Junda Electronic
CCTC
Redboard
Wuzhu Group
Kinwong
Aoshikang
Shennan Circuits
Segment by Type
Rigid 1-2Sided
Standard Multilayer
HDI/Microvia/Build-Up
IC Substrate
Flexible Circuits
Rigid Flex
Others
Segment by Application
Consumer Electronics
Computer
Communications
Industrial/Medical
Automotive
Military/Aerospace
Others
Production by Region
United States
Europe
China
Japan
South Korea
Taiwan
Consumption by Region
North America
U.S.
Canada
Asia-Pacific
China
Japan
South Korea
India
Australia
China Taiwan
Indonesia
Thailand
Malaysia
Europe
Germany
France
U.K.
Italy
Russia
Latin America
Mexico
Brazil
Argentina
Middle East and Africa
Turkey
Saudi Arabia
UAE
Chapter Outline
Chapter 1: Introduces the report scope of the report, executive summary of different market segments (by region, by Type, by Application, etc), including the market size of each market segment, future development potential, and so on. It offers a high-level view of the current state of the market and its likely evolution in the short to mid-term, and long term.
Chapter 2: Detailed analysis of Printed Circuit Board manufacturers competitive landscape, price, production and value market share, latest development plan, merger, and acquisition information, etc.
Chapter 3: Production/output, value of Printed Circuit Board by region/country. It provides a quantitative analysis of the market size and development potential of each region in the next six years.
Chapter 4: Consumption of Printed Circuit Board in regional level and country level. It provides a quantitative analysis of the market size and development potential of each region and its main countries and introduces the market development, future development prospects, market space, and production of each country in the world.
Chapter 5: Provides the analysis of various market segments by Type, covering the market size and development potential of each market segment, to help readers find the blue ocean market in different market segments.
Chapter 6: Provides the analysis of various market segments by Application, covering the market size and development potential of each market segment, to help readers find the blue ocean market in different downstream markets.
Chapter 7: Provides profiles of key players, introducing the basic situation of the main companies in the market in detail, including product production/output, value, price, gross margin, product introduction, recent development, etc.
Chapter 8: Analysis of industrial chain, including the upstream and downstream of the industry.
Chapter 9: Introduces the market dynamics, latest developments of the market, the driving factors and restrictive factors of the market, the challenges and risks faced by manufacturers in the industry, and the analysis of relevant policies in the industry.
Chapter 10: The main points and conclusions of the report.
Please Note - This is an on demand report and will be delivered in 2 business days (48 hours) post payment.
1 Printed Circuit Board Market Overview
1.1 Product Definition
1.2 Printed Circuit Board by Type
1.2.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Market Value Growth Rate Analysis by Type: 2024 VS 2031
1.2.2 Rigid 1-2Sided
1.2.3 Standard Multilayer
1.2.4 HDI/Microvia/Build-Up
1.2.5 IC Substrate
1.2.6 Flexible Circuits
1.2.7 Rigid Flex
1.2.8 Others
1.3 Printed Circuit Board by Application
1.3.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Market Value Growth Rate Analysis by Application: 2024 VS 2031
1.3.2 Consumer Electronics
1.3.3 Computer
1.3.4 Communications
1.3.5 Industrial/Medical
1.3.6 Automotive
1.3.7 Military/Aerospace
1.3.8 Others
1.4 Global Market Growth Prospects
1.4.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
1.4.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Capacity Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
1.4.3 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
1.4.4 Global Printed Circuit Board Market Average Price Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
1.5 Assumptions and Limitations
2 Market Competition by Manufacturers
2.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Market Share by Manufacturers (2020-2025)
2.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value Market Share by Manufacturers (2020-2025)
2.3 Global Key Players of Printed Circuit Board, Industry Ranking, 2023 VS 2024
2.4 Global Printed Circuit Board Company Type and Market Share by Company Type (Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3)
2.5 Global Printed Circuit Board Average Price by Manufacturers (2020-2025)
2.6 Global Key Manufacturers of Printed Circuit Board, Manufacturing Base Distribution and Headquarters
2.7 Global Key Manufacturers of Printed Circuit Board, Product Offered and Application
2.8 Global Key Manufacturers of Printed Circuit Board, Date of Enter into This Industry
2.9 Printed Circuit Board Market Competitive Situation and Trends
2.9.1 Printed Circuit Board Market Concentration Rate
2.9.2 Global 5 and 10 Largest Printed Circuit Board Players Market Share by Revenue
2.10 Mergers & Acquisitions, Expansion
3 Printed Circuit Board Production by Region
3.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value Estimates and Forecasts by Region: 2020 VS 2024 VS 2031
3.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value by Region (2020-2031)
3.2.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value by Region (2020-2025)
3.2.2 Global Forecasted Production Value of Printed Circuit Board by Region (2026-2031)
3.3 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Estimates and Forecasts by Region: 2020 VS 2024 VS 2031
3.4 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Volume by Region (2020-2031)
3.4.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production by Region (2020-2025)
3.4.2 Global Forecasted Production of Printed Circuit Board by Region (2026-2031)
3.5 Global Printed Circuit Board Market Price Analysis by Region (2020-2025)
3.6 Global Printed Circuit Board Production and Value, Year-over-Year Growth
3.6.1 United States Printed Circuit Board Production Value Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
3.6.2 Europe Printed Circuit Board Production Value Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
3.6.3 China Printed Circuit Board Production Value Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
3.6.4 Japan Printed Circuit Board Production Value Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
3.6.5 South Korea Printed Circuit Board Production Value Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
3.6.6 Taiwan Printed Circuit Board Production Value Estimates and Forecasts (2020-2031)
4 Printed Circuit Board Consumption by Region
4.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Consumption Estimates and Forecasts by Region: 2020 VS 2024 VS 2031
4.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Consumption by Region (2020-2031)
4.2.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Consumption by Region (2020-2025)
4.2.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Forecasted Consumption by Region (2026-2031)
4.3 North America
4.3.1 North America Printed Circuit Board Consumption Growth Rate by Country: 2020 VS 2024 VS 2031
4.3.2 North America Printed Circuit Board Consumption by Country (2020-2031)
4.3.3 U.S.
4.3.4 Canada
4.4 Europe
4.4.1 Europe Printed Circuit Board Consumption Growth Rate by Country: 2020 VS 2024 VS 2031
4.4.2 Europe Printed Circuit Board Consumption by Country (2020-2031)
4.4.3 Germany
4.4.4 France
4.4.5 U.K.
4.4.6 Italy
4.4.7 Netherlands
4.5 Asia Pacific
4.5.1 Asia Pacific Printed Circuit Board Consumption Growth Rate by Region: 2020 VS 2024 VS 2031
4.5.2 Asia Pacific Printed Circuit Board Consumption by Region (2020-2031)
4.5.3 China
4.5.4 Japan
4.5.5 South Korea
4.5.6 China Taiwan
4.5.7 Southeast Asia
4.5.8 India
4.6 Latin America, Middle East & Africa
4.6.1 Latin America, Middle East & Africa Printed Circuit Board Consumption Growth Rate by Country: 2020 VS 2024 VS 2031
4.6.2 Latin America, Middle East & Africa Printed Circuit Board Consumption by Country (2020-2031)
4.6.3 Mexico
4.6.4 Brazil
4.6.5 Israel
5 Segment by Type
5.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production by Type (2020-2031)
5.1.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production by Type (2020-2025)
5.1.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Production by Type (2026-2031)
5.1.3 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Market Share by Type (2020-2031)
5.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value by Type (2020-2031)
5.2.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value by Type (2020-2025)
5.2.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value by Type (2026-2031)
5.2.3 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value Market Share by Type (2020-2031)
5.3 Global Printed Circuit Board Price by Type (2020-2031)
6 Segment by Application
6.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production by Application (2020-2031)
6.1.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production by Application (2020-2025)
6.1.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Production by Application (2026-2031)
6.1.3 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Market Share by Application (2020-2031)
6.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value by Application (2020-2031)
6.2.1 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value by Application (2020-2025)
6.2.2 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value by Application (2026-2031)
6.2.3 Global Printed Circuit Board Production Value Market Share by Application (2020-2031)
6.3 Global Printed Circuit Board Price by Application (2020-2031)
7 Key Companies Profiled
7.1 Nippon Mektron
7.1.1 Nippon Mektron Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.1.2 Nippon Mektron Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.1.3 Nippon Mektron Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.1.4 Nippon Mektron Main Business and Markets Served
7.1.5 Nippon Mektron Recent Developments/Updates
7.2 Unimicron
7.2.1 Unimicron Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.2.2 Unimicron Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.2.3 Unimicron Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.2.4 Unimicron Main Business and Markets Served
7.2.5 Unimicron Recent Developments/Updates
7.3 SEMCO
7.3.1 SEMCO Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.3.2 SEMCO Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.3.3 SEMCO Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.3.4 SEMCO Main Business and Markets Served
7.3.5 SEMCO Recent Developments/Updates
7.4 Young Poong Group
7.4.1 Young Poong Group Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.4.2 Young Poong Group Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.4.3 Young Poong Group Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.4.4 Young Poong Group Main Business and Markets Served
7.4.5 Young Poong Group Recent Developments/Updates
7.5 Ibiden
7.5.1 Ibiden Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.5.2 Ibiden Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.5.3 Ibiden Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.5.4 Ibiden Main Business and Markets Served
7.5.5 Ibiden Recent Developments/Updates
7.6 ZDT
7.6.1 ZDT Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.6.2 ZDT Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.6.3 ZDT Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.6.4 ZDT Main Business and Markets Served
7.6.5 ZDT Recent Developments/Updates
7.7 Tripod
7.7.1 Tripod Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.7.2 Tripod Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.7.3 Tripod Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.7.4 Tripod Main Business and Markets Served
7.7.5 Tripod Recent Developments/Updates
7.8 TTM
7.8.1 TTM Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.8.2 TTM Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.8.3 TTM Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.8.4 TTM Main Business and Markets Served
7.8.5 TTM Recent Developments/Updates
7.9 SEI
7.9.1 SEI Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.9.2 SEI Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.9.3 SEI Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.9.4 SEI Main Business and Markets Served
7.9.5 SEI Recent Developments/Updates
7.10 Daeduck Group
7.10.1 Daeduck Group Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.10.2 Daeduck Group Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.10.3 Daeduck Group Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.10.4 Daeduck Group Main Business and Markets Served
7.10.5 Daeduck Group Recent Developments/Updates
7.11 HannStar Board (GBM)
7.11.1 HannStar Board (GBM) Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.11.2 HannStar Board (GBM) Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.11.3 HannStar Board (GBM) Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.11.4 HannStar Board (GBM) Main Business and Markets Served
7.11.5 HannStar Board (GBM) Recent Developments/Updates
7.12 Viasystems(TTM)
7.12.1 Viasystems(TTM) Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.12.2 Viasystems(TTM) Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.12.3 Viasystems(TTM) Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.12.4 Viasystems(TTM) Main Business and Markets Served
7.12.5 Viasystems(TTM) Recent Developments/Updates
7.13 Nanya PCB
7.13.1 Nanya PCB Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.13.2 Nanya PCB Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.13.3 Nanya PCB Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.13.4 Nanya PCB Main Business and Markets Served
7.13.5 Nanya PCB Recent Developments/Updates
7.14 CMK Corporation
7.14.1 CMK Corporation Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.14.2 CMK Corporation Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.14.3 CMK Corporation Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.14.4 CMK Corporation Main Business and Markets Served
7.14.5 CMK Corporation Recent Developments/Updates
7.15 Shinko Electric Ind
7.15.1 Shinko Electric Ind Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.15.2 Shinko Electric Ind Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.15.3 Shinko Electric Ind Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.15.4 Shinko Electric Ind Main Business and Markets Served
7.15.5 Shinko Electric Ind Recent Developments/Updates
7.16 Compeq
7.16.1 Compeq Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.16.2 Compeq Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.16.3 Compeq Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.16.4 Compeq Main Business and Markets Served
7.16.5 Compeq Recent Developments/Updates
7.17 AT&S
7.17.1 AT&S Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.17.2 AT&S Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.17.3 AT&S Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.17.4 AT&S Main Business and Markets Served
7.17.5 AT&S Recent Developments/Updates
7.18 Kingboard
7.18.1 Kingboard Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.18.2 Kingboard Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.18.3 Kingboard Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.18.4 Kingboard Main Business and Markets Served
7.18.5 Kingboard Recent Developments/Updates
7.19 Ellington
7.19.1 Ellington Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.19.2 Ellington Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.19.3 Ellington Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.19.4 Ellington Main Business and Markets Served
7.19.5 Ellington Recent Developments/Updates
7.20 Junda Electronic
7.20.1 Junda Electronic Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.20.2 Junda Electronic Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.20.3 Junda Electronic Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.20.4 Junda Electronic Main Business and Markets Served
7.20.5 Junda Electronic Recent Developments/Updates
7.21 CCTC
7.21.1 CCTC Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.21.2 CCTC Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.21.3 CCTC Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.21.4 CCTC Main Business and Markets Served
7.21.5 CCTC Recent Developments/Updates
7.22 Redboard
7.22.1 Redboard Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.22.2 Redboard Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.22.3 Redboard Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.22.4 Redboard Main Business and Markets Served
7.22.5 Redboard Recent Developments/Updates
7.23 Wuzhu Group
7.23.1 Wuzhu Group Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.23.2 Wuzhu Group Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.23.3 Wuzhu Group Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.23.4 Wuzhu Group Main Business and Markets Served
7.23.5 Wuzhu Group Recent Developments/Updates
7.24 Kinwong
7.24.1 Kinwong Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.24.2 Kinwong Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.24.3 Kinwong Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.24.4 Kinwong Main Business and Markets Served
7.24.5 Kinwong Recent Developments/Updates
7.25 Aoshikang
7.25.1 Aoshikang Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.25.2 Aoshikang Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.25.3 Aoshikang Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.25.4 Aoshikang Main Business and Markets Served
7.25.5 Aoshikang Recent Developments/Updates
7.26 Shennan Circuits
7.26.1 Shennan Circuits Printed Circuit Board Company Information
7.26.2 Shennan Circuits Printed Circuit Board Product Portfolio
7.26.3 Shennan Circuits Printed Circuit Board Production, Value, Price and Gross Margin (2020-2025)
7.26.4 Shennan Circuits Main Business and Markets Served
7.26.5 Shennan Circuits Recent Developments/Updates
8 Industry Chain and Sales Channels Analysis
8.1 Printed Circuit Board Industry Chain Analysis
8.2 Printed Circuit Board Raw Material Supply Analysis
8.2.1 Key Raw Materials
8.2.2 Raw Materials Key Suppliers
8.3 Printed Circuit Board Production Mode & Process Analysis
8.4 Printed Circuit Board Sales and Marketing
8.4.1 Printed Circuit Board Sales Channels
8.4.2 Printed Circuit Board Distributors
8.5 Printed Circuit Board Customer Analysis
9 Printed Circuit Board Market Dynamics
9.1 Printed Circuit Board Industry Trends
9.2 Printed Circuit Board Market Drivers
9.3 Printed Circuit Board Market Challenges
9.4 Printed Circuit Board Market Restraints
10 Research Findings and Conclusion
11 Methodology and Data Source
11.1 Methodology/Research Approach
11.1.1 Research Programs/Design
11.1.2 Market Size Estimation
11.1.3 Market Breakdown and Data Triangulation
11.2 Data Source
11.2.1 Secondary Sources
11.2.2 Primary Sources
11.3 Author List
11.4 Disclaimer
Nippon Mektron
Unimicron
SEMCO
Young Poong Group
Ibiden
ZDT
Tripod
TTM
SEI
Daeduck Group
HannStar Board (GBM)
Viasystems(TTM)
Nanya PCB
CMK Corporation
Shinko Electric Ind
Compeq
AT&S
Kingboard
Ellington
Junda Electronic
CCTC
Redboard
Wuzhu Group
Kinwong
Aoshikang
Shennan Circuits
听
听
*If Applicable.
